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→Alternative Root Projects
Alternative Roots are separate root systems in that the contents of their root zone files deviate from the [[IANA]] promulgated authoritative root zone file.<ref>[https://www.internetgovernance.org/2020/02/26/the-knake-mueller-wager-will-china-form-an-alternate-dns-root/ Will China Form an Alternate DNS Root?, IGP]</ref> Alternative Root Servers, or Alternative Domain Servers, provide users with alternative TLDs not currently available via mainstream browsers. The control of the official [[Internet]] is in the hands of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ([[ICANN]]). IANA, a department of ICANN, has full control over the root server, which is a file on a computer that is kept at Herndon, Virginia. This file works as the official list of domain names on the Internet.<ref>[http://www.iana.org/about About IANA]</ref>
'''Alternative Roots''' are either systems not based on the [[DNS]] protocol at all or systems based on the DNS protocol but whose contents deviate from the [[IANA]] promulgated authoritative root zone file.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/octo-034-27apr22-en.pdf Challenges with Alternative Name Systems, ICANN OCTO, April 27, 2022]
</ref><ref>[https://www.internetgovernance.org/2020/02/26/the-knake-mueller-wager-will-china-form-an-alternate-dns-root/ Will China Form an Alternate DNS Root?, IGP]</ref> Alternative Root Servers, or Alternative Domain Servers, provide users with alternative TLDs not currently available via mainstream browsers. The control of the official [[Internet]] is in the hands of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ([[ICANN]]). IANA, a department of ICANN, has full control over the root server, which is a file on a computer that is kept at Herndon, Virginia. This file works as the official list of domain names on the Internet.<ref>[http://www.iana.org/about About IANA]</ref>
The [[DNS]] is a hierarchical system designed to allow humans to use text strings to access content or services in place of [[IP address]]es on a global information network. Operating systems have been distributed for decades with the listing of default DNS servers to use as the authoritative place to obtain an answer when searching for a [[TLD]]. There are 13 [[Root Server Operator]]s in that file, and they comprise the [[Internet]]'s DNS root.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/rssac-023-04nov16-en.pdf History of the Root Server System, RSSAC023, ICANN]</ref> In addition to the Internet's DNS root working in agreement with [[ICANN]], several organizations operate Alternative Root Servers (often referred to as "altroots"). Each alternative root has its own set of root nameservers and its own set of TLDs.
The [[DNS]] is a hierarchical system designed to allow humans to use text strings to access content or services in place of [[IP address]]es on a global information network. Operating systems have been distributed for decades with the listing of default DNS servers to use as the authoritative place to obtain an answer when searching for a [[TLD]]. There are 13 [[Root Server Operator]]s in that file, and they comprise the [[Internet]]'s DNS root.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/rssac-023-04nov16-en.pdf History of the Root Server System, RSSAC023, ICANN]</ref> In addition to the Internet's DNS root working in agreement with [[ICANN]], several organizations operate Alternative Root Servers (often referred to as "altroots"). Each alternative root has its own set of root nameservers and its own set of TLDs.
==Alternative Root Projects==
==Alternative Root Projects==
Alternative Root Servers have been in existence since 1995 when several groups of Internet users found out that they didn’t have choices other than [[.com]], [[.org]]], and so on. Historically, altroots could be divided into two groups: those run for idealistic or ideological reasons and those run as profit-making enterprises. The latest wave of altroots can be differentiated based on the technology on which they rely: blockchain.
Alternative Root Servers have been in existence since 1995 when several groups of Internet users found out that they didn’t have choices other than [[.com]], [[.org]]], and so on. Historically, altroots could be divided into two groups: those run for idealistic or ideological reasons and those run as profit-making enterprises. The latest wave of altroots can be differentiated based on the technology on which they rely: blockchain. A blockchain domain name system is a decentralized directory for registering, managing, and resolving domain names. It can operate as a browser extension or stand-alone software. The nodes are equal in power and authority; all owners must contribute or delegate their votes to specific nodes to make decisions or changes to the blockchain DNS.<ref>[https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/best-blockchain-dns-software/#What_Is_Blockchain_DNS Top 13 BEST Blockchain DNS Software, Software Testing Help, November 29, 2021]</ref>
* [https://www.aloaha.com/home-page/blockchaintechnologies/ Aloaha]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19970125144823/http://www.alternic.net/TLDS.html AlterNIC] (aka ANIC): a domain name registry created by [[Eugene Kashpureff]] and [[Diane Boling]] that relied on an alternative DNS root with the aim of challenging the monopoly of [https://www.internic.net/ InterNIC] that operated from 1995 to 1997.<ref>[https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/alternic-founder-arrested/ AlterNIC Founder Arrested, CNet]</ref>
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19970125144823/http://www.alternic.net/TLDS.html AlterNIC] (aka ANIC): a domain name registry created by [[Eugene Kashpureff]] and [[Diane Boling]] that relied on an alternative DNS root with the aim of challenging the monopoly of [https://www.internic.net/ InterNIC] that operated from 1995 to 1997.<ref>[https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/alternic-founder-arrested/ AlterNIC Founder Arrested, CNet]</ref>
* CINICS (aka Common Interest Network Information Center Society)<ref>[https://forum.icann.org/newtldagmts/3BF3D0C000001782.html Root Support, Forum, ICANN]</ref>
* CINICS (aka Common Interest Network Information Center Society)<ref>[https://forum.icann.org/newtldagmts/3BF3D0C000001782.html Root Support, Forum, ICANN]</ref>
* .bit domains are based on the virtual currency Namecoin and included in OpenNIC's DNS.<ref>[https://peername.com/dot-bit/ Dot BIT, PeerName]</ref>
* eDNS: an organization that promoted alternative DNS root services established by [[Karl Denninger]]; it opened and closed in 1997 as it did not achieve commercial success.<ref>[https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/2784667 eDNS, Academic.com]</ref><ref>[https://www.iperdome.com/releases/970304.htm eDNS Press Release, Iperdome]</ref>
* eDNS: an organization that promoted alternative DNS root services established by [[Karl Denninger]]; it opened and closed in 1997 as it did not achieve commercial success.<ref>[https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/2784667 eDNS, Academic.com]</ref><ref>[https://www.iperdome.com/releases/970304.htm eDNS Press Release, Iperdome]</ref>
* Ethereum: an alternative protocol for building decentralized applications, providing a different set of tradeoffs for a large class of decentralized applications, that focuses on situations involving rapid development time, requiring security for small and rarely used applications, and offering wide-ranging, agile interaction. It has an abstract foundational layer: a blockchain with a built-in Turing-complete programming language so that anyone can write smart contracts and decentralized applications with their own arbitrary rules for ownership, transaction formats, and state transition functions.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/#alternative-blockchain-applications Alternative Blockchain Applications, Ethereum.org]</ref>
* EmerDNS: the DNS service offered by Emercoin, a blockchain platform created in 2013 that offers Decentralized Software Development Kits. Rather than using smart contracts, Emercoin uses NVS logic, which is not Turing-complete and cannot be used to write malicious code.<ref>[https://emercoin.com/en/documentation/about-emercoin About Emercoin, Emercoin]</ref>
* [https://handshake.org Handshake]: A DNS-backwards compatible naming protocol. It adds a distributed, decentralized blockchain-based system to the root zone file where TLD ownership information is stored. No one controls it and anyone can use it, allowing for a root zone that is uncensorable, permissionless, and free of gatekeepers. Every peer in the Handshake network [[Cryptography|cryptographically]] validates and manages the root zone, eliminating the need for the Certificate Authority system.<ref>[https://learn.namebase.io/about-handshake/about-handshake About Handshake, Namebase]</ref>
* Ethereum Naming Service (ENS): a second-level domain using the Ethereum protocol for building decentralized applications, providing a different set of tradeoffs for a large class of decentralized applications, that focuses on situations involving rapid development time, requiring security for small and rarely used applications, and offering wide-ranging, agile interaction. It has an abstract foundational layer: a blockchain with a built-in Turing-complete programming language so that anyone can write smart contracts and decentralized applications with their own arbitrary rules for ownership, transaction formats, and state transition functions.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/#alternative-blockchain-applications Alternative Blockchain Applications, Ethereum.org]</ref> The foundation created [[.eth]], then added functionality to work with existing main-root TLDs rather than requiring new extensions. The IETF has not added .eth to the special use domain name list. As of 28 March 2022, over 800,00013 domains have been created on ENS.<ref>[ https://dune.com/makoto/ens ENS Counter, Dune]</ref> The browser Opera can access ENS domains.
:: ''Potential Shortcoming'': gas fees (user payments made to compensate for the computing energy required to process and validate transactions on the Ethereum blockchain)<ref>[https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gas-ethereum.asp Understanding Gas in Ethereum, Investopedia]</ref> are required to claim a name or even change your nameserver.<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>
* FriGate: Blockchain DNS services provided through a proxy, accelerates access to blocked websites, encrypts traffic, opens Tor sites, and supports EmerDNS.<ref>[https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/frigate-vpn/gmgimpdjmagalimgdaeacfcpoimfpikm FriGate, Web Store, Chrome]</ref><ref>[https://fri-gate.org/ FriGate]</ref>
* [https://handshake.org Handshake]: A DNS-backwards compatible naming protocol. It adds a distributed, decentralized blockchain-based system to the root zone file where TLD ownership information is stored. No one controls it and anyone can use it, allowing for a root zone that is uncensorable, permissionless, and free of gatekeepers. Every peer in the Handshake network [[Cryptography|cryptographically]] validates and manages the root zone, eliminating the need for the Certificate Authority system.<ref>[https://learn.namebase.io/about-handshake/about-handshake About Handshake, Namebase]</ref> The Beacon browser can natively access the Handshake domains.
:: ''Potential shortcomings'': [[Andrew Allemann]] points out that: Handshake is decentralized at the top level, allowing many companies and people to create top-level domains. However, it is centralized at the second level. [[Namecheap]] sells Handshake domains like .creator, .oo, and individuals pay annual fees for them. These blockchain-based domains have renewal fees and few people can access them. Moreover, with so many top-level domains, few to none may gain general recognition, a problem some people cited in the 2012 [[New gTLD Program]].<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>
* [http://i-dns.net/ iDNS]: Beginning as a research project at the University of Singapore, this DNS ran under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Networking Group in 1998 and was incorporated in 1999. i-DNS successfully test-bedded [[IDN]]s over a 6-month period, in collaboration with [[CNNIC]], and the NICs of Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore.<ref>[http://www.i-dns.net/company/history/history.html Our History, i-DNS]</ref>
* [http://i-dns.net/ iDNS]: Beginning as a research project at the University of Singapore, this DNS ran under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Networking Group in 1998 and was incorporated in 1999. i-DNS successfully test-bedded [[IDN]]s over a 6-month period, in collaboration with [[CNNIC]], and the NICs of Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore.<ref>[http://www.i-dns.net/company/history/history.html Our History, i-DNS]</ref>
* [https://www.iperdome.com/ Iperdome]:
* [https://www.iperdome.com/ Iperdome]:
* Namecoin: created in 2010, the first decentralized name registration database to use the first-to-file paradigm (where the first registerer succeeds and the second fails); this implementation requires bootstrapping an independent blockchain and building and testing all the necessary state transition and networking code.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/ Ethereum Whitepaper]</ref>
* Namecoin: created in 2010, this second-level domain system was the first decentralized name registration database to use the first-to-file paradigm (where the first registerer succeeds and the second fails); this implementation requires bootstrapping an independent blockchain and building and testing all the necessary state transition and networking code.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/ Ethereum Whitepaper]</ref>
* [http://www.domainincite.com/8247-company-claims-ownership-of-482-new-gtlds name.space]
* [http://www.domainincite.com/8247-company-claims-ownership-of-482-new-gtlds name.space]
* NBA
* NBA
* Nebulis: Founders Philip Saunders and Mohamed Alborno call it "a new phonebook for the new web." It uses the Ethereum blockchain network and Interplanetary Filesystem to create a decentralized DNS and web servers, respectively.<ref>[https://www.f6s.com/nebulis Nebulis, F6S]</ref>
* The NEM DNS is built on the NEM blockchain platform and is open source.<ref>[https://github.com/aenima86/NEM-DNS NEM DNS, GitHub]</ref><ref>[https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/nem-blockchain-dns/cecfgjcaojocahnokodcboipkhdcefip NEM Blockchain DNS, Web Store, Chrome]</ref>
* New.Net/VendareMedia/Connexus: a commercial alternative root that sought to compete with [[.com]], [[.net]], and other TLDs. that attempted to work directly with internet service providers to activate their domain names automatically at the network level. The founders developed proprietary technology to allow their domain-naming system to exist alongside ICANN.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070612090152/http://www.new.net/about_us_mission.tp Mission, About Us, New.Net, Web Archives]</ref>
* New.Net/VendareMedia/Connexus: a commercial alternative root that sought to compete with [[.com]], [[.net]], and other TLDs. that attempted to work directly with internet service providers to activate their domain names automatically at the network level. The founders developed proprietary technology to allow their domain-naming system to exist alongside ICANN.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070612090152/http://www.new.net/about_us_mission.tp Mission, About Us, New.Net, Web Archives]</ref>
* Nokia Blockchain DNS: In early December 2021, Nokia Technologies acquire U.S. Patent No. 11,196,573 for a secure decentralized domain name system for the IoT and private resident usage of the blockchain for security.<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2021/12/07/nokia-gets-blockchain-dns-patent/ Nokia Gets Blockchain DNS Patent, Domain Name Wire]</ref>
* OpenNIC: a user-owned and -controlled top-level Network Information Center offering a non-national alternative to traditional Top-Level Domain (TLD) registries.<ref>[https://wiki.opennic.org/ Wiki, OpenNIC]</ref>
* OpenNIC: a user-owned and -controlled top-level Network Information Center offering a non-national alternative to traditional Top-Level Domain (TLD) registries.<ref>[https://wiki.opennic.org/ Wiki, OpenNIC]</ref>
* [https://www.open-rsc.org/ Open Root Server Confederation (ORSC)]<ref>[https://www.ntia.doc.gov/legacy/ntiahome/domainname/proposals/orsc/ORSC_PRO.htm ORSC Proposal, NTIA]</ref>
* [https://www.open-rsc.org/ Open Root Server Confederation (ORSC)]<ref>[https://www.ntia.doc.gov/legacy/ntiahome/domainname/proposals/orsc/ORSC_PRO.htm ORSC Proposal, NTIA]</ref>
* Open Root Server Network (ORSN): A network of root servers in Europe (other than the one run by Paul Vixie in the U.S.) that operated from February 2002 to December 2008. ORSN had 2 operating modes: ICANN-based and the default, independent. The former involved daily synchronization but did not remove TLDs that ICANN; the latter was not automatically synchronized.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20051124020843/http://european.de.orsn.net/faq.php FAQs, ORSN.net, Web Archives Nov. 24, 2005]</ref>
* Open Root Server Network (ORSN): A network of root servers in Europe (other than the one run by Paul Vixie in the U.S.) that operated from February 2002 to December 2008. ORSN had 2 operating modes: ICANN-based and the default, independent. The former involved daily synchronization but did not remove TLDs that ICANN; the latter was not automatically synchronized.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20051124020843/http://european.de.orsn.net/faq.php FAQs, ORSN.net, Web Archives Nov. 24, 2005]</ref>
:{| class="wikitable"
:{| class="wikitable"
| M || Home of the Brave GmbH || Frankfurt, Germany
| M || Home of the Brave GmbH || Frankfurt, Germany
|}
|}
* [https://www.peername.org/ PeerName] supports the .BIT, .EMC, .COIN, .LIB, and .BAZAR blockchain TLDs.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190515033336/http://public-root.com/ Public-Root/INIAC]: this project began operating in Dec 2003 and was supported by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20051230163211/http://inaic.com/ Internet Names Authorization & Information Center] beginning in 2005.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190515033336/http://public-root.com/ Public-Root/INIAC]: this project began operating in Dec 2003 and was supported by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20051230163211/http://inaic.com/ Internet Names Authorization & Information Center] beginning in 2005.
* Russian National Domain Name System: a project started in 2019 by Roskomnadzor, (Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media), that may gradually become mandatory for all [[ISP]]s in Russia. Its servers are located on the Moscow Internet Exchange. The mission is to provide an alternative root for all users within Russia and continue functioning in case of its disconnection from the rest of the Internet.<ref>[https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/01/russia-controversial-sovereign-internet-law-goes-into-force.html Russia's Sovereign Internet Law, CNBC]</ref>
* Russian National Domain Name System: a project started in 2019 by Roskomnadzor, (Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media), that may gradually become mandatory for all [[ISP]]s in Russia. Its servers are located on the Moscow Internet Exchange. The mission is to provide an alternative root for all users within Russia and continue functioning in case of its disconnection from the rest of the Internet.<ref>[https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/01/russia-controversial-sovereign-internet-law-goes-into-force.html Russia's Sovereign Internet Law, CNBC]</ref>
* Stacks/OneName: a decentralized website on a Bitcoin blockchain founded by [[Jude Nelson]], with no third party managing ID systems, databases, or web servers that combines DNS with a Public Key Infrastructure.<ref>[https://www.stacks.co/learn/introduction Introduction, Stacks]</ref>
* UCDA
* UCDA
* [https://www.unifiedroot.com/ UnifiedRoot]: River Book Investment Company bought this alternative root based in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in 2005. It operates an independent infrastructure to enable the creation and usage of TLDs and IDNs registered on its system. The Unifiedroot root server platform is IPv6 and IDN ready and operates parallel to ICANN. Individuals cannot apply for a TLD or IDN with Unifiedroot. Only companies, organizations, and institutions can register a TLD or IDN.<ref>[https://www.unifiedroot.com/en/Company-Info/About-Us.html About Us, UnifiedRoot]</ref>
* [https://www.unifiedroot.com/ UnifiedRoot]: River Book Investment Company bought this alternative root based in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in 2005. It operates an independent infrastructure to enable the creation and usage of TLDs and IDNs registered on its system. The Unifiedroot root server platform is IPv6 and IDN ready and operates parallel to ICANN. Individuals cannot apply for a TLD or IDN with Unifiedroot. Only companies, organizations, and institutions can register a TLD or IDN.<ref>[https://www.unifiedroot.com/en/Company-Info/About-Us.html About Us, UnifiedRoot]</ref>
* [https://www.cryptovantage.com/best-crypto-tools/unstoppable-domains/ Unstoppable]:
* [https://www.cryptovantage.com/best-crypto-tools/unstoppable-domains/ Unstoppable]: This venture-backed company takes the traditional alt-root approach, offering extensions such as .crypto, .wallet and .nft. It is based on [https://polygon.technology/ Polygon], an Ethereum scaling platform design, and as of March 2022, it has over 2,100,000 domains registered. Unstoppable Domains has developed its own browser based on Chromium.
:: ''Potential shortcoming'': when ICANN launches its next round of [[nTLDs]], multiple companies will apply for the aforementioned likely to be popular extensions, leading to [[Name Collision]].<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>
* [https://www.theregister.com/2000/10/17/tlds_web_icann_afilias/ .web IODesign]: In 2012, IODesign claimed it had over 20,000 domains in its alternative root.<ref>[http://www.domainincite.com/10783-original-web-gtld-applicant-sues-icann Original .Web Applicant Sues ICANN, Domain Incite]</ref><ref>[https://www.icann.org/resources/pages/iod-v-icann-2012-11-02-en IOD vs ICANN, Resources, ICANN]</ref>
* [https://www.theregister.com/2000/10/17/tlds_web_icann_afilias/ .web IODesign]: In 2012, IODesign claimed it had over 20,000 domains in its alternative root.<ref>[http://www.domainincite.com/10783-original-web-gtld-applicant-sues-icann Original .Web Applicant Sues ICANN, Domain Incite]</ref><ref>[https://www.icann.org/resources/pages/iod-v-icann-2012-11-02-en IOD vs ICANN, Resources, ICANN]</ref>
* [https://yeti-dns.org/ Yeti-DNS]: Supported by Japan’s [[WIDE Project]], Paul Vixie’s engineering and security project [[TISF]], and the [[Beijing Internet Institute]], this project explores IPv6-only operation, DNSSEC key rollover, renumbering and scaling issues, and multiple zone file signers.<ref>[Alternate DNS Roots and the Abominable Snowman of Sovereignty, IGP]</ref> Phase 2 of the project is decentralized (there no central node, so each node needs to reach a consensus when performing operations; the primary node is the executor but has no special authority); it is scalable; it uses threshold signature technology to reduce the number of [[DNSKEY]]; and it uses DM Management Committee (DMMC) for transactions.<ref>[https://yeti-dns.org/index.html Phase 2, Yeti-DNS]</ref>
* [https://yeti-dns.org/ Yeti-DNS]: Supported by Japan’s [[WIDE Project]], Paul Vixie’s engineering and security project [[TISF]], and the [[Beijing Internet Institute]], this project explores IPv6-only operation, DNSSEC key rollover, renumbering and scaling issues, and multiple zone file signers.<ref>Alternate DNS Roots and the Abominable Snowman of Sovereignty, IGP</ref> Phase 2 of the project is decentralized (there no central node, so each node needs to reach a consensus when performing operations; the primary node is the executor but has no special authority); it is scalable; it uses threshold signature technology to reduce the number of [[DNSKEY]]; and it uses DM Management Committee (DMMC) for transactions.<ref>[https://yeti-dns.org/index.html Phase 2, Yeti-DNS]</ref>
==Reasons Alternative Root Projects Have Developed==
==Reasons Alternative Root Projects Have Developed==
* In September 2001, [[Milton Mueller]] concluded that "competition among DNS roots should be permitted and is a healthy outlet for inefficiency or abuses of power by the dominant root administrator."<ref>[https://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0109021 Competing DNS Roots: Creative Destruction or Just Plain Destruction?, Computers and Society]</ref>
* In September 2001, [[Milton Mueller]] concluded that "competition among DNS roots should be permitted and is a healthy outlet for inefficiency or abuses of power by the dominant root administrator."<ref>[https://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0109021 Competing DNS Roots: Creative Destruction or Just Plain Destruction?, Computers and Society]</ref>
* There was a bottleneck in the domain name industry due to ICANN's glacial pace of delegating new TLDs especially in its early years.<ref>[https://www.internetgovernance.org/2016/04/07/alternate-dns-roots-and-the-abominable-snowman-of-sovereignty/ Alternate DNS Roots and the Abominable Snowman of Sovereignty, IGP]</ref>
* There was a bottleneck in the domain name industry due to ICANN's glacial pace of delegating new TLDs especially in its early years.<ref>[https://www.internetgovernance.org/2016/04/07/alternate-dns-roots-and-the-abominable-snowman-of-sovereignty/ Alternate DNS Roots and the Abominable Snowman of Sovereignty, IGP]</ref>
* Alternative DNS roots can allow for more democratic control of the Internet.<ref>[Bastick, Zach (2012). "Our Internet and Freedom of Speech 'Hobbled by History': Introducing Plural Control Structures Needed to Redress a Decade of Linear Policy". ''European Commission: European Journal of EPractice'' (15): 97–111]</ref>
* Alternative DNS roots can allow for more democratic control of the Internet.<ref>Bastick, Zach (2012). "Our Internet and Freedom of Speech 'Hobbled by History': Introducing Plural Control Structures Needed to Redress a Decade of Linear Policy". ''European Commission: European Journal of EPractice'' (15): 97–111</ref>
===Against Governmental/Intergovernmental Control of the Internet===
===Against Governmental/Intergovernmental Control of the Internet===
* ORSN was founded out of concern over the U.S. government's control of ICANN.<ref>[https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/1045573 ORSN, Academic.com]</ref>
* ORSN was founded out of concern over the U.S. government's control of ICANN.<ref>[https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/1045573 ORSN, Academic.com]</ref>
* ORSC's founders wanted the evolution of the Internet's Domain Name System to be organic, from the bottom up, and free of intergovernmental agencies.<ref>[https://www.open-rsc.org/about/ About, ORSC]</ref>
* ORSC's founders wanted the evolution of the Internet's Domain Name System to be organic, from the bottom up, and free of intergovernmental agencies.<ref>[https://www.open-rsc.org/about/ About, ORSC]</ref>
===Experimentation===
===Experimentation===
* In 2005, [[Paul Vixie]], a member of the [[ISC]] F-Root team and involved in maintaining [[BIND]], a popular open-source implementation of DNS, suggested to [[RSSAC]] that [[ICANN]] create an alternate root zone so that the technical community could add features like [[IDN|internationalized domain names]], [[IPv6]], and [[DNSSEC]] without disrupting older DNS behavior.<ref>[https://circleid.com/posts/20160330_let_me_make_yeti_dns_perfectly_clear Vixie, Let Me Make Yeti-DNS Perfectly Clear, CircleID]</ref>
* In 2005, [[Paul Vixie]], a member of the DNS's [[ISC]] [[Root Zone|F-Root]] team and involved in maintaining [[BIND]], a popular open-source implementation of DNS, suggested to [[RSSAC]] that [[ICANN]] create an alternate root zone so that the technical community could add features like [[IDN|internationalized domain names]], [[IPv6]], and [[DNSSEC]] without disrupting older DNS behavior.<ref>[https://circleid.com/posts/20160330_let_me_make_yeti_dns_perfectly_clear Vixie, Let Me Make Yeti-DNS Perfectly Clear, CircleID]</ref>
* Advances in authentication: Blockchain relies on a new security model of validation, reducing individual credential management.
* Advances in authentication: Blockchain relies on a new security model of validation, reducing individual credential management.
===[[Data Privacy]]===
===[[Data Privacy]]===
* Individual chooses relationships and connections, offering privacy and data protection, as all data and personal information are stored by the individual making the connections.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>
* Individual chooses relationships and connections via blockchain domain names, offering privacy and data protection, as all data and personal information are stored by the individual making the connections.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>
* Blockchain registrations contain unique encrypted hashes instead of individual names and addresses.<ref>[https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/best-blockchain-dns-software/#What_Is_Blockchain_DNS Top 13 BEST Blockchain DNS Software, Software Testing Help, November 29, 2021]</ref>
===Peer-to-Peer Transactions===
===Peer-to-Peer Transactions===
Individuals can make transactions with each other directly; they do not need intermediary companies.
Individuals can make transactions with each other directly; they do not need intermediary companies.
===Uncensored Activities===
===Uncensored Activities===
===Security===
* In Blockchain-based DNS alternates, information is encrypted and stored in immutable and timestamped blocks (easier to audit, harder to tamper with and delete)<ref>[https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/best-blockchain-dns-software/#What_Is_Blockchain_DNS Top 13 BEST Blockchain DNS Software, Software Testing Help, November 29, 2021]</ref>
* Blockchain doesn't require [[CA|certificates]]
==Theories on Why Alternative Root Projects Fail==
==Theories on Why Alternative Root Projects Fail==
Concerns have been raised over how alternative roots could lead to the technical, governmental, and commercial splintering of the Internet.<ref>[https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_FII_Internet_Fragmentation_An_Overview_2016.pdf William J. Drake, Vinton G. Cerf, Wolfgang Kleinwächter, Internet Fragmentation, World Economic Forum 2016]</ref>
Concerns have been raised over how alternative roots could lead to the technical, governmental, and commercial splintering of the Internet.<ref>[https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_FII_Internet_Fragmentation_An_Overview_2016.pdf William J. Drake, Vinton G. Cerf, Wolfgang Kleinwächter, Internet Fragmentation, World Economic Forum 2016]</ref>
===[[Name Collision]]===
===[[Name Collision]]===
Conflicts can occur in user experience and functionality when there are identical TLDs that do not match in their delegation, which is why some form of centralized coordination is important in adding names to roots, such as we see with ICANN. The .biz TLD created by Pacific Root was in operation before ICANN proposed running .biz, and at least one of the alternative root servers resolves .biz to Pacific Root's. There are .biz domain names that exist in different roots and point to different IP addresses. The possibility of such conflicts, and their potential for destabilizing the Internet, is the main source of controversy surrounding alt roots.
Conflicts can occur in user experience and functionality when there are identical TLDs that do not match in their delegation, which is why some form of centralized coordination is important in adding names to roots, such as we see with ICANN. The .biz TLD created by Pacific Root was in operation before ICANN proposed running .biz, and at least one of the alternative root servers resolves .biz to the PacificRoot's. There are .biz domain names that exist in different roots and point to different IP addresses. The possibility of such conflicts, and their potential for destabilizing the Internet, is the main source of controversy surrounding alt roots.
===[[Internet Governance|Governance]]===
===[[Internet Governance|Governance]]===
For better or worse, there is a lack of governance in decentralized systems such as that making use of [[Blockchain]].<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref> However, the [[Multistakeholder Model|coordination]] required to encompass many voices and views and build consensus is glacial in contrast to the pace of pioneering and innovation in unregulated spaces.
For better or worse, there is a lack of governance in decentralized systems such as that making use of [[Blockchain]].<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref> However, the [[Multistakeholder Model|coordination]] required to encompass many voices and views and build consensus is glacial in contrast to the pace of pioneering and innovation in unregulated spaces.
===[[Cybersecurity|Security]]===
===[[Cybersecurity|Security]]===
====DNS====
====ICANN's DNS====
* The [[DNS]] was not made with security in mind; thus, [[DNS Abuse]] has grown up along with the expansion of the Internet.
* The [[DNS]] was not made with security in mind; thus, [[DNS Abuse]] has grown up along with the expansion of the Internet.
* Certificate providers can be hacked or coerced and can be a single point of failure in the trust chain of the web.<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2021/12/07/nokia-gets-blockchain-dns-patent/ Nokia Gets Blockchain DNS Patent, Domain Name Wire]</ref>
====Blockchain models====
====Blockchain models====
* Easy to copy and paste<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>
* Easy to copy and paste<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>
===Functionality===
===Functionality===
Commentators note that alternative name systems today are clunky, hard to reach, and expensive; they put the onus on browsers, which do not want to govern.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref> Adapting applications to use multiple alternative naming systems is complicated and particularly if the names overlap. Applications would have to know which alternative naming system to look up for each domain name or define an order for making the lookups. The approach for defining an order in the DNS has proved non-deterministic and problematic.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/octo-034-27apr22-en.pdf Challenges with Alternative Name Systems, pg. 8, ICANN OCTO, April 27, 2022]</ref> Web gateways do not require any set up on the client's side, but they have to be maintained over time, must scale with demand, and are a single point of failure and a target for [[Threat Actor|malicious actors]]. When a plurality of naming systems is deployed, the same number of bridges must be built, and users need to know to which alternative naming system the domain is registered to be able to use the right bridge to reach it.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/octo-034-27apr22-en.pdf Challenges with Alternative Name Systems, pg. 12, ICANN OCTO, April 27, 2022]</ref>
====Popularity====
* Limited audience: few people can view sites or send emails and only to those also using domains in the alternative TLDs. This could be improved through the use of special helper applications, or if a custom configuration was made to their computer, or to their nameservers, or a custom configuration at an ISP upstream in the DNS hierarchy. None of these solutions were as comprehensive as being listed in the default nameservers that are seen when an operating system starts. Whilst technically trivial to set up, actually running a reliable root server network, in the long run, is a serious undertaking, requiring multiple servers to be kept running 24/7 in geographically diverse locations. During the dot-com boom, some alt-root providers believed that there were substantial profits to be made from providing alternative top-level domains. Only a small proportion of ISPs actually use any of the zones served by alt-root operators, generally sticking to the ICANN-specified root servers. This in turn led to the commercial failure of several alternative DNS root providers.
* Limited audience: few people can view sites or send emails and only to those also using domains in the alternative TLDs. This could be improved through the use of special helper applications, or if a custom configuration was made to their computer, or to their nameservers, or a custom configuration at an ISP upstream in the DNS hierarchy. None of these solutions were as comprehensive as being listed in the default nameservers that are seen when an operating system starts. Whilst technically trivial to set up, actually running a reliable root server network, in the long run, is a serious undertaking, requiring multiple servers to be kept running 24/7 in geographically diverse locations. During the dot-com boom, some alt-root providers believed that there were substantial profits to be made from providing alternative top-level domains. Only a small proportion of ISPs actually use any of the zones served by alt-root operators, generally sticking to the ICANN-specified root servers. This in turn led to the commercial failure of several alternative DNS root providers.
* Alternative name systems today are clunky, hard to reach, and expensive; they put the onus on browsers, which do not want to govern.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>
====Blockchain Domains====
* Blockchain websites are not yet popular, as they have unusual extensions (such as .eth), are based on complex smart contracts to form a human-readable web address, and require users to install special extensions and plugins to their browsers to access them.<ref>[https://www.softwaretestinghelp.com/best-blockchain-dns-software/#What_Is_Blockchain_DNS Top 13 BEST Blockchain DNS Software, Software Testing Help, November 29, 2021]</ref>
* The [[Ethereum Name Service]] (ENS) offers users a simple, human-readable name for their cryptocurrency wallet(s), and operates in a manner similar to the [[DNS]] - converting plain language names (such as "example.eth") into an identifying hash string of characters that represents a user's wallet or identity. [[Uniregistry]]'s decision to auction its portfolio of gTLDs and include an ENS non-fungible token (NFT) for each TLD, so that the winning bidder had the "rights" to sell second-level blockchain addresses to interested users, caused a [[Uniregistry#April 2021 - Combined TLD and Etherium Name Service Token Auctions|controversy]], as ICANN delayed acceptance of assignment requests throughout 2021 while it investigated whether the combination of NFT and TLD impacted the security and stability of the [[DNS]].
===Costs===
===Costs===