Changes

'''Alternative Roots''' are separate root systems in that the contents of their root zone files deviate from the [[IANA]] promulgated authoritative root zone file.<ref>[https://www.internetgovernance.org/2020/02/26/the-knake-mueller-wager-will-china-form-an-alternate-dns-root/ Will China Form an Alternate DNS Root?, IGP]</ref> Alternative Root Servers, or Alternative Domain Servers, provide users with alternative TLDs not currently available via mainstream browsers. The control of the official [[Internet]] is in the hands of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ([[ICANN]]). IANA, a department of ICANN, has full control over the root server, which is a file on a computer that is kept at Herndon, Virginia. This file works as the official list of domain names on the Internet.<ref>[http://www.iana.org/about About IANA]</ref>

'''Alternative Roots''' are either systems not based on the [[DNS]] protocol at all or systems based on the DNS protocol but whose contents deviate from the [[IANA]] promulgated authoritative root zone file.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/octo-034-27apr22-en.pdf Challenges with Alternative Name Systems, ICANN OCTO, April 27, 2022]

</ref><ref>[https://www.internetgovernance.org/2020/02/26/the-knake-mueller-wager-will-china-form-an-alternate-dns-root/ Will China Form an Alternate DNS Root?, IGP]</ref> Alternative Root Servers, or Alternative Domain Servers, provide users with alternative TLDs not currently available via mainstream browsers. The control of the official [[Internet]] is in the hands of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ([[ICANN]]). IANA, a department of ICANN, has full control over the root server, which is a file on a computer that is kept at Herndon, Virginia. This file works as the official list of domain names on the Internet.<ref>[http://www.iana.org/about About IANA]</ref>

The [[DNS]] is a hierarchical system designed to allow humans to use text strings to access content or services in place of [[IP address]]es on a global information network. Operating systems have been distributed for decades with the listing of default DNS servers to use as the authoritative place to obtain an answer when searching for a [[TLD]]. There are 13 [[Root Server Operator]]s in that file, and they comprise the [[Internet]]'s DNS root.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/rssac-023-04nov16-en.pdf History of the Root Server System, RSSAC023, ICANN]</ref> In addition to the Internet's DNS root working in agreement with [[ICANN]], several organizations operate Alternative Root Servers (often referred to as "altroots"). Each alternative root has its own set of root nameservers and its own set of TLDs.

The [[DNS]] is a hierarchical system designed to allow humans to use text strings to access content or services in place of [[IP address]]es on a global information network. Operating systems have been distributed for decades with the listing of default DNS servers to use as the authoritative place to obtain an answer when searching for a [[TLD]]. There are 13 [[Root Server Operator]]s in that file, and they comprise the [[Internet]]'s DNS root.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/rssac-023-04nov16-en.pdf History of the Root Server System, RSSAC023, ICANN]</ref> In addition to the Internet's DNS root working in agreement with [[ICANN]], several organizations operate Alternative Root Servers (often referred to as "altroots"). Each alternative root has its own set of root nameservers and its own set of TLDs.

* EmerDNS: the DNS service offered by Emercoin, a blockchain platform created in 2013 that offers Decentralized Software Development Kits. Rather than using smart contracts, Emercoin uses NVS logic, which is not Turing-complete and cannot be used to write malicious code.<ref>[https://emercoin.com/en/documentation/about-emercoin About Emercoin, Emercoin]</ref>

* EmerDNS: the DNS service offered by Emercoin, a blockchain platform created in 2013 that offers Decentralized Software Development Kits. Rather than using smart contracts, Emercoin uses NVS logic, which is not Turing-complete and cannot be used to write malicious code.<ref>[https://emercoin.com/en/documentation/about-emercoin About Emercoin, Emercoin]</ref>

* Ethereum: an alternative protocol for building decentralized applications, providing a different set of tradeoffs for a large class of decentralized applications, that focuses on situations involving rapid development time, requiring security for small and rarely used applications, and offering wide-ranging, agile interaction. It has an abstract foundational layer: a blockchain with a built-in Turing-complete programming language so that anyone can write smart contracts and decentralized applications with their own arbitrary rules for ownership, transaction formats, and state transition functions.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/#alternative-blockchain-applications Alternative Blockchain Applications, Ethereum.org]</ref> The foundation created [[.eth]], then added functionality to work with existing main-root TLDs rather than requiring new extensions.  

* Ethereum Naming Service (ENS): a second-level domain using the Ethereum protocol for building decentralized applications, providing a different set of tradeoffs for a large class of decentralized applications, that focuses on situations involving rapid development time, requiring security for small and rarely used applications, and offering wide-ranging, agile interaction. It has an abstract foundational layer: a blockchain with a built-in Turing-complete programming language so that anyone can write smart contracts and decentralized applications with their own arbitrary rules for ownership, transaction formats, and state transition functions.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/#alternative-blockchain-applications Alternative Blockchain Applications, Ethereum.org]</ref> The foundation created [[.eth]], then added functionality to work with existing main-root TLDs rather than requiring new extensions. The IETF has not added .eth to the special use domain name list. As of 28 March 2022, over 800,00013 domains have been created on ENS.<ref>[ https://dune.com/makoto/ens ENS Counter, Dune]</ref> The browser Opera can access ENS domains.

:: ''Potential Shortcoming'': gas fees (user payments made to compensate for the computing energy required to process and validate transactions on the Ethereum blockchain)<ref>[https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gas-ethereum.asp Understanding Gas in Ethereum, Investopedia]</ref> are required to claim a name or even change your nameserver.<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>  

:: ''Potential Shortcoming'': gas fees (user payments made to compensate for the computing energy required to process and validate transactions on the Ethereum blockchain)<ref>[https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gas-ethereum.asp Understanding Gas in Ethereum, Investopedia]</ref> are required to claim a name or even change your nameserver.<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>

* FriGate: Blockchain DNS services provided through a proxy, accelerates access to blocked websites, encrypts traffic, opens Tor sites, and supports EmerDNS.<ref>[https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/frigate-vpn/gmgimpdjmagalimgdaeacfcpoimfpikm FriGate, Web Store, Chrome]</ref><ref>[https://fri-gate.org/ FriGate]</ref>

* FriGate: Blockchain DNS services provided through a proxy, accelerates access to blocked websites, encrypts traffic, opens Tor sites, and supports EmerDNS.<ref>[https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/frigate-vpn/gmgimpdjmagalimgdaeacfcpoimfpikm FriGate, Web Store, Chrome]</ref><ref>[https://fri-gate.org/ FriGate]</ref>

* [https://handshake.org Handshake]: A DNS-backwards compatible naming protocol. It adds a distributed, decentralized blockchain-based system to the root zone file where TLD ownership information is stored. No one controls it and anyone can use it, allowing for a root zone that is uncensorable, permissionless, and free of gatekeepers. Every peer in the Handshake network [[Cryptography|cryptographically]] validates and manages the root zone, eliminating the need for the Certificate Authority system.<ref>[https://learn.namebase.io/about-handshake/about-handshake About Handshake, Namebase]</ref>  

* [https://handshake.org Handshake]: A DNS-backwards compatible naming protocol. It adds a distributed, decentralized blockchain-based system to the root zone file where TLD ownership information is stored. No one controls it and anyone can use it, allowing for a root zone that is uncensorable, permissionless, and free of gatekeepers. Every peer in the Handshake network [[Cryptography|cryptographically]] validates and manages the root zone, eliminating the need for the Certificate Authority system.<ref>[https://learn.namebase.io/about-handshake/about-handshake About Handshake, Namebase]</ref> The Beacon browser can natively access the Handshake domains.

:: ''Potential shortcomings'': [[Andrew Allemann]] points out that: Handshake is decentralized at the top level, allowing many companies and people to create top-level domains. However, it is centralized at the second level. [[Namecheap]] sells Handshake domains like .creator, .oo, and individuals pay annual fees for them. These blockchain-based domains have renewal fees and few people can access them. Moreover, with so many top-level domains, few to none may gain general recognition, a problem some people cited in the 2012 [[New gTLD Program]].<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>

:: ''Potential shortcomings'': [[Andrew Allemann]] points out that: Handshake is decentralized at the top level, allowing many companies and people to create top-level domains. However, it is centralized at the second level. [[Namecheap]] sells Handshake domains like .creator, .oo, and individuals pay annual fees for them. These blockchain-based domains have renewal fees and few people can access them. Moreover, with so many top-level domains, few to none may gain general recognition, a problem some people cited in the 2012 [[New gTLD Program]].<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>

* [http://i-dns.net/ iDNS]: Beginning as a research project at the University of Singapore, this DNS ran under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Networking Group in 1998 and was incorporated in 1999. i-DNS successfully test-bedded [[IDN]]s over a 6-month period, in collaboration with [[CNNIC]], and the NICs of Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore.<ref>[http://www.i-dns.net/company/history/history.html Our History, i-DNS]</ref>  

* [http://i-dns.net/ iDNS]: Beginning as a research project at the University of Singapore, this DNS ran under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Networking Group in 1998 and was incorporated in 1999. i-DNS successfully test-bedded [[IDN]]s over a 6-month period, in collaboration with [[CNNIC]], and the NICs of Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, and Singapore.<ref>[http://www.i-dns.net/company/history/history.html Our History, i-DNS]</ref>  

* [https://www.iperdome.com/ Iperdome]:

* [https://www.iperdome.com/ Iperdome]:

* Namecoin: created in 2010, the first decentralized name registration database to use the first-to-file paradigm (where the first registerer succeeds and the second fails); this implementation requires bootstrapping an independent blockchain and building and testing all the necessary state transition and networking code.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/ Ethereum Whitepaper]</ref>

* Namecoin: created in 2010, this second-level domain system was the first decentralized name registration database to use the first-to-file paradigm (where the first registerer succeeds and the second fails); this implementation requires bootstrapping an independent blockchain and building and testing all the necessary state transition and networking code.<ref>[https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/ Ethereum Whitepaper]</ref>

* [http://www.domainincite.com/8247-company-claims-ownership-of-482-new-gtlds name.space]

* [http://www.domainincite.com/8247-company-claims-ownership-of-482-new-gtlds name.space]

* [https://www.unifiedroot.com/ UnifiedRoot]: River Book Investment Company bought this alternative root based in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in 2005. It operates an independent infrastructure to enable the creation and usage of TLDs and IDNs registered on its system. The Unifiedroot root server platform is IPv6 and IDN ready and operates parallel to ICANN. Individuals cannot apply for a TLD or IDN with Unifiedroot. Only companies, organizations, and institutions can register a TLD or IDN.<ref>[https://www.unifiedroot.com/en/Company-Info/About-Us.html About Us, UnifiedRoot]</ref>

* [https://www.unifiedroot.com/ UnifiedRoot]: River Book Investment Company bought this alternative root based in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in 2005. It operates an independent infrastructure to enable the creation and usage of TLDs and IDNs registered on its system. The Unifiedroot root server platform is IPv6 and IDN ready and operates parallel to ICANN. Individuals cannot apply for a TLD or IDN with Unifiedroot. Only companies, organizations, and institutions can register a TLD or IDN.<ref>[https://www.unifiedroot.com/en/Company-Info/About-Us.html About Us, UnifiedRoot]</ref>

* [https://www.cryptovantage.com/best-crypto-tools/unstoppable-domains/ Unstoppable]: This venture-backed company takes the traditional alt-root approach, offering extensions such as .crypto, .wallet and .nft.

* [https://www.cryptovantage.com/best-crypto-tools/unstoppable-domains/ Unstoppable]: This venture-backed company takes the traditional alt-root approach, offering extensions such as .crypto, .wallet and .nft. It is based on [https://polygon.technology/ Polygon], an Ethereum scaling platform design, and as of March 2022, it has over 2,100,000 domains registered. Unstoppable Domains has developed its own browser based on Chromium.

 

:: ''Potential shortcoming'': when ICANN launches its next round of [[nTLDs]], multiple companies will apply for the aforementioned likely to be popular extensions, leading to [[Name Collision]].<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>   

:: ''Potential shortcoming'': when ICANN launches its next round of [[nTLDs]], multiple companies will apply for the aforementioned likely to be popular extensions, leading to [[Name Collision]].<ref>[https://domainnamewire.com/2022/01/13/blockchain-domains-and-the-big-challenges-they-face/ Blockchain Domains' Challenges, DNW]</ref>   

* ORSC's founders wanted the evolution of the Internet's Domain Name System to be organic, from the bottom up, and free of intergovernmental agencies.<ref>[https://www.open-rsc.org/about/ About, ORSC]</ref>

* ORSC's founders wanted the evolution of the Internet's Domain Name System to be organic, from the bottom up, and free of intergovernmental agencies.<ref>[https://www.open-rsc.org/about/ About, ORSC]</ref>

===Experimentation===

===Experimentation===

* In 2005, [[Paul Vixie]], a member of the [[ISC]] F-Root team and involved in maintaining [[BIND]], a popular open-source implementation of DNS, suggested to [[RSSAC]] that [[ICANN]] create an alternate root zone so that the technical community could add features like [[IDN|internationalized domain names]], [[IPv6]], and [[DNSSEC]] without disrupting older DNS behavior.<ref>[https://circleid.com/posts/20160330_let_me_make_yeti_dns_perfectly_clear Vixie, Let Me Make Yeti-DNS Perfectly Clear, CircleID]</ref>

* In 2005, [[Paul Vixie]], a member of the DNS's [[ISC]] [[Root Zone|F-Root]] team and involved in maintaining [[BIND]], a popular open-source implementation of DNS, suggested to [[RSSAC]] that [[ICANN]] create an alternate root zone so that the technical community could add features like [[IDN|internationalized domain names]], [[IPv6]], and [[DNSSEC]] without disrupting older DNS behavior.<ref>[https://circleid.com/posts/20160330_let_me_make_yeti_dns_perfectly_clear Vixie, Let Me Make Yeti-DNS Perfectly Clear, CircleID]</ref>

* Advances in authentication: Blockchain relies on a new security model of validation, reducing individual credential management.

* Advances in authentication: Blockchain relies on a new security model of validation, reducing individual credential management.

===[[Data Privacy]]===

===[[Data Privacy]]===

* Individual chooses relationships and connections via blockchain domain names, offering privacy and data protection, as all data and personal information are stored by the individual making the connections.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>

* Individual chooses relationships and connections via blockchain domain names, offering privacy and data protection, as all data and personal information are stored by the individual making the connections.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>

===Functionality===

===Functionality===

Commentators note that alternative name systems today are clunky, hard to reach, and expensive; they put the onus on browsers, which do not want to govern.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref>

Commentators note that alternative name systems today are clunky, hard to reach, and expensive; they put the onus on browsers, which do not want to govern.<ref>Tyler Mason, GoDaddy Blockchain Domain Names Webinar, 12/1/2021</ref> Adapting applications to use multiple alternative naming systems is complicated and particularly if the names overlap. Applications would have to know which alternative naming system to look up for each domain name or define an order for making the lookups. The approach for defining an order in the DNS has proved non-deterministic and problematic.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/octo-034-27apr22-en.pdf Challenges with Alternative Name Systems, pg. 8, ICANN OCTO, April 27, 2022]</ref> Web gateways do not require any set up on the client's side, but they have to be maintained over time, must scale with demand, and are a single point of failure and a target for [[Threat Actor|malicious actors]]. When a plurality of naming systems is deployed, the same number of bridges must be built, and users need to know to which alternative naming system the domain is registered to be able to use the right bridge to reach it.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/octo-034-27apr22-en.pdf Challenges with Alternative Name Systems, pg. 12, ICANN OCTO, April 27, 2022]</ref>  

====Early altroots====

====Popularity====

* Limited audience: few people can view sites or send emails and only to those also using domains in the alternative TLDs. This could be improved through the use of special helper applications, or if a custom configuration was made to their computer, or to their nameservers, or a custom configuration at an ISP upstream in the DNS hierarchy. None of these solutions were as comprehensive as being listed in the default nameservers that are seen when an operating system starts. Whilst technically trivial to set up, actually running a reliable root server network, in the long run, is a serious undertaking, requiring multiple servers to be kept running 24/7 in geographically diverse locations. During the dot-com boom, some alt-root providers believed that there were substantial profits to be made from providing alternative top-level domains. Only a small proportion of ISPs actually use any of the zones served by alt-root operators, generally sticking to the ICANN-specified root servers. This in turn led to the commercial failure of several alternative DNS root providers.

* Limited audience: few people can view sites or send emails and only to those also using domains in the alternative TLDs. This could be improved through the use of special helper applications, or if a custom configuration was made to their computer, or to their nameservers, or a custom configuration at an ISP upstream in the DNS hierarchy. None of these solutions were as comprehensive as being listed in the default nameservers that are seen when an operating system starts. Whilst technically trivial to set up, actually running a reliable root server network, in the long run, is a serious undertaking, requiring multiple servers to be kept running 24/7 in geographically diverse locations. During the dot-com boom, some alt-root providers believed that there were substantial profits to be made from providing alternative top-level domains. Only a small proportion of ISPs actually use any of the zones served by alt-root operators, generally sticking to the ICANN-specified root servers. This in turn led to the commercial failure of several alternative DNS root providers.

====Blockchain Domains====

====Blockchain Domains====