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root servers history
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
'''History of ROOT-SERVERS''' - A Journey from 4 nodes to 13 nodes at present. Based on the excerpt from “History of Root DNS Servers” by RSSAC.
'''History of ROOT-SERVERS''' - A Journey from 4 nodes to 13 nodes at present. Based on the excerpt from “History of Root DNS Servers” by RSSAC.<ref>[https://www.icann.org/en/system/files/files/rssac-023-04nov16-en.pdf]</ref><ref>[https://blog.gauravkansal.in/2022/02/history-of-root-servers.html]</ref>
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==1.3 Period 1991 – ROOT DNS Outside North America==
<div style="text-align: justify;">
There was an increasing need to have one or more root name servers in Europe to reduce the dependency on the few, expensive and unstable Internet links to the U.S. The issue was a topic of discussion at RIPE 1 on 22 May 1989. <ref>[https://www.ripe.net/participate/meetings/ripe-meetings/ripe-1]</ref>
On 28 July 1991, the server NIC.NORDU.NET was added to the root zone and became the first non-U.S. root server.
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==1.4 Period 1991-1992==
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In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency awarded the NIC contract to Government Systems, Inc. (GSI), which in turn outsourced the contract to Network Solutions, Inc. (NSI). As a result, a few changes happened –
* NS.NIC.DDN.MIL ownership changes from SRI-International to Network Solutions, Inc.
* A.ISI.EDU was retired, and a new root server KAVA.NISC.SRI.COM take the place of A.ISI.EDU.
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==1.5 1993 – InterNIC==
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Since the 1980s, the registration of domain names was performed by the DDN-NIC under contract by the Department of Defense. This was because most registrants at the time were military users and awardees. By the early 1990s, due to the rapid growth of the NSFNET, academic institutions comprised the majority of new registrations, and the military was no longer willing to fund the registration for these names. The U.S. Federal Networking Council (a group of U.S. Government agencies involved in networking) asked the National Science Foundation (NSF) to assume responsibility for non-military Internet registration.
In 1992, after a solicitation process (NSF 9224), the NSF awarded three five-year cooperative agreements, to American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), General Atomics (GA), and Network Solutions, Inc. (NSI). The contracted parties were to provide directory and database services, information services and non-military registration services, respectively. These companies adopted the name InterNIC for their joint role.
Around the time Network Solutions won the bid to manage the domain registration service, it asked Jon Postel (IANA) about adding NS.INTERNET.NET as a root name server. Postel agreed and IANA added NS.INTERNET.NET as a root server in April 1993.
In May 1994, KAVA.NISC.SRI.COM at SRI International was retired due to lack of funding, and NS1.ISI.EDU was added as a root server to replace it.
In 1994, Paul Vixie and Rick Adams asked Jon Postel (IANA) on behalf of the Internet Software Consortium (ISC) to add a root server at ISC. Postel agreed, and in September 1994, IANA added NS.ISC.ORG as a root server. ISC was the organisation coordinating the ongoing development and distribution of the most-used name server software, BIND, after taking over responsibility for BIND from Digital Equipment Corporation.
In October 1994, C.NYSER.NET changed to C.PSI.NET, as part of the commercialisation of the Internet service provider (ISP).
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==1.6 1995 – Renaming Root Servers to root-servers.net==
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By April 1993, the number of root name servers had grown to an extent where the size of a root hints response was approaching the limit of 512 bytes. Bill Manning and Paul Vixie developed a plan to rename all root servers under the root-servers.net domain. This would allow the use of DNS label compression to fit all the names within 512 bytes. Postel (IANA) agreed with the plan and Mark Kosters began the renaming phases in 1995.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ List of Root Servers in November 1990
|-
!Original Name !!New Name !!Organisation
|-
|NS.InterNIC.NET ||A.root-servers.net ||InterNIC (Operated by NSI)
|-
|NS1.ISI.EDU ||B.root-servers.net ||Information Science Institute, USC
|-
|C.PSI.NET ||C.root-servers.net || PSINet
|-
|TERP.UMD.NET ||D.root-server.net ||University of Maryland
|-
|NS.NASA.GOV ||E.root-servers.net ||NASA Ames Research Centre
|-
|NS.ISC.ORG ||F.root-server.net ||Internet Software Consortium <ref>[In 1994 when ISC first began to run a root name server, the company name was Internet Software Consortium. it was later changed to Internet Systems Consortium]</ref>
|-
|NS.NIC.DDN.MIL ||G.root-server.net ||GSI (Operated by NSI)<ref>[The .mil zone is removed from the root servers in 2006 that had been providing authoritative support (A, B, E, F, G, and H).]</ref>
|-
|AOS.ARL.ARMY.MIL || H.root-server.net || U.S. Army Research Lab <ref>[On 09th Dec 2002, IPv6 support added to H at address 2001:500:1::803f:235 (no AAAA’s added to root zone until 2008).]</ref>
|-
|NIC.NORDU.NET || I.root-server.net || NORDUnet
|}
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==1.7 1997 – Adding J, K, L and M ==
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Until 1996, there was only 9 Root Servers and with the migration to root-servers.net, operators were able to take advantage of DNS label compression,<ref>[Domain name compression was introduced in RFC1035 as an optional protocol feature and later mandated by RFC1123. In this scheme, an entire domain name or a list of labels at the end of a domain name is replaced with a pointer to a prior occurrence of the same name in the same message, thus eliminating the repetition of domain names in a message and reducing the size of the message. In the case of responses to root server priming queries , the domain root-servers.net appears only once in the response, instead of 13 times (once for each root server).]</ref> leaving room for four additional root servers to fit within a 512 byte DNS response (will cover the 512 byte logic in detail in subsequent article).<ref>[The limitation is specified in RFC 1035 because at the time there were networks that could not handle DNS packets larger than 512 bytes without fragmenting. Also, known firewall rules dropped DNS packets more than 512 bytes in size]</ref>
In January 1997, servers J-Root, K-Root, L-Root and M-Root, were added, serving the root zone exclusively. Postel (IANA) asked Network Solutions Inc. to set up two additional servers with the intention of moving them to suitable operators quickly thereafter. He kept two more servers at USC-ISI with the same intention. J-Root and K-Root were set up at Network Solutions on the U.S. East Coast, while L-Root and M-Root were at USC ISI on the U.S. West Coast.
From interviews, it appears that Jon Postel developed and used a few simple criteria in selecting organizations to host these new servers:
* Need: The need for root server service. At the time, Europe had one operator. As the Internet developed in Europe, another root server would be useful. There were also no root servers in Asia, so a root server was needed there. The primary tool that Postel used to determine the need was Larry Landweber’s International Connectivity Map.
* Connectivity: The potential operator must have good connectivity both to the internal infrastructure (internal connectivity), and to the world (external connectivity).
* Community consensus: The potential operator should demonstrate the widest possible support from the community being served.
* Commitment to send and respond to traffic without filtering. The operator must be able to answer every DNS query and send responses back unfiltered.
For the European region, a number of parties expressed their willingness to operate a second root name server. Jon Postel (IANA) encouraged all parties to seek consensus about the matter. After thorough discussion, there was consensus that the Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) was the appropriate organization to operate the server because of its neutrality and technical expertise. In particular, the RIPE NCC was deemed able to change the server’s deployment following changes in Internet topology<ref>[At the time, all deployments were unicast. The RIPE DNS working group suggested deploying near or at one of the existing open exchange points. Consequently, the first deployment was at the LINX in London. The LINX contributed hosting and local hands, while the RIPE NCC provided the hardware and covered operations. This choice re-emphasized the independence of the location of the operator and the server itself. This was followed shortly thereafter by deployment of a hot standby at the AMS-IX.]</ref>.
In the Asia Pacific Region, the Widely Integrated Distributed Environment (WIDE) organization was chosen.
These selections provided additional organizational diversity in the operation of root servers. Operators now included educational institutions, governments, commercial companies and not-for-profit service organizations.
In May 1997, K-Root (K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET) moved to London LINX, managed by RIPE NCC. In August 1997, M-Root (M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET) moved to Japan, managed by WIDE.
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==1.8 Root Servers after Postel’s Death==
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With K-Root and M-Root assigned, there remained two additional root servers to be assigned. Unfortunately, Jon Postel died on 16 October 1998, and there was no one to drive the process of assigning these additional root servers. J-Root stayed with NSI, and remained with Verisign after it acquired NSI in 2000.
Before Postel’s death, it was planned that USC would transfer certain responsibilities, assets, and personnel to ICANN<ref>[Founded in 1998, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is a private not-for-profit public benefit corporation. It has performed the IANA functions on behalf of the global Internet community since the organization’s creation in 1998. ]</ref>. In 1999, this transfer occurred, which included L-Root.
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==Current Root Server name, IP Address and Operator==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! Hostname !! IP Addresses !! Operator
|-
|A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 198.41.0.4, 2001:503:ba3e::2:30 || Verisign, Inc.
|-
| B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 192.228.79.201, 2001:500:84::b || Information Sciences Institute, USC
|-
| C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 192.33.4.12, 2001:500:2::c || Cogent Communications
|-
| D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 199.7.91.13, 2001:500:2d::d || University of Maryland
|-
| E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 192.203.230.10, 2001:500:a8::e || NASA Ames Research Center
|-
| F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 192.5.5.241, 2001:500:2f::f || Internet Systems Consortium, Inc.
|-
| G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 192.112.36.4, 2001:500:12::d0d || U.S. Department of Defense Network Information Center
|-
| H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 198.97.190.53, 2001:500:1::53 || U.S. Army Research Lab
|-
| I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 192.36.148.17, 2001:7fe::53 || Netnod
|-
| J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 192.58.128.30, 2001:503:c27::2:30 || Verisign, Inc.
|-
| K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 193.0.14.129,, 2001:7fd::1 || RIPE NCC
|-
| L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 199.7.83.42, 2001:500:3::42 || ICANN
|-
| M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET || 202.12.27.33, 2001:dc3::35 || WIDE Project and JPRS
|}
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:RSSAC Caucus]]
[[Category:RSSAC Caucus]]